1. Background on Thermoelectric Systems
Temperature control is integral to the proper functioning of many modern systems and technologies. Mechanical heat pumps, comprising mechanically actuated expansion and compression chambers, are the most efficient heat transfer systems available today. However, there are many instances where a smaller, planar, or shape flexible system would be desirable. Thermoelectric (“TE”) systems have the potential to address these needs, and capture wasted heat energy. However, the efficiencies of TE systems remain well below that of their mechanical counterparts and their high cost often limits prior art embodiments to niche applications. Therefore, methods that achieve higher thermopower and greater reliability at lower cost are desirable. As discussed below, the limitations are due primarily to the methods used to manufacture thermoelectric systems.
Thermoelectric systems are often configured as a Peltier module 1 depicted in FIGS. 1A,1B. Peltier modules 1 consist of an array of thermoelectric elements 2 sandwiched between thermally conducting top 3 and bottom 4 plates or surfaces. The Peltier module 1 has an electrical input 5 and an electrical output 6, through which electrical stimulus in the form of a current and voltage is applied to generate a temperature differential across the top 3 and bottom 4 surface volumes. Semiconductor elements 2 are actually configured as element pairs 7, wherein one element in the pair 7 comprises p-type electronic material 8 and the other element in the pair comprises n-type electronic material 9. Within a given element pair 7, the p-type 8 and n-type 9 materials are in electrical communication with each other through a first conducting element 10, which is also in thermal communication with an upper surface volume 11. The application of a temperature differential that causes the upper surface volume 11 to be hotter than the colder lower surface volume 12 will excite heat-mediating charge carriers in the semiconductor elements 8,9 to higher kinetic energy. The heat stimulus from the applied temperature differential causes the excited charge carrier to move at higher speeds within the solid than the charge carriers in close proximity to the cold side of the element. The faster charge carriers quickly diffuse from the first conducting element 10 in thermal contact with the hotter upper surface volume 11 towards the colder lower surface volume 12. In p-type semiconducting electronic material 8, positively charged holes 13 migrate from the first conducting element 10 towards the colder lower surface volume 12. Conversely, negatively charged electrons 14 migrate from the first conducting element 10 towards the colder lower surface volume 12 in the n-type semiconducting electronic material 9. The higher charge carrier densities generated in the semiconducting regions in thermal contact with the colder lower surface volume 12 by the applied temperature gradient induce internal electric fields between the hot charge carriers that have accumulated in the colder regions of the semiconducting element pair 7 and their donor atoms (not shown) in the hotter regions. At steady-state conditions, the internal electric fields generated by the non-equilibrium charge carrier density gradients induce a voltage bias 15 that causes charge carriers to electrically drift back towards their donor atoms. The electronic drift driven by the induced voltage bias 15 balances the diffusion process activated by the temperature gradient that produce the non-equilibrium charge carrier density gradients, so there is no net flow of charge. The generation of an internal voltage bias 15 through the application of a thermal gradient is known as the Seebeck effect. The relative strength of the phenomenon within a given semiconductor material is characterized by the Seebeck coefficient, S.
A thermally induced voltage bias 15 can be tapped to recover wasted heat energy when a temperature differential from the heat energy source is applied to induce a temperature gradient across a pair of upper 11 and lower 12 surface volumes of a thermoelectric module 1. Conversely, a voltage bias 15 that is externally applied across a thermoelectric element pair 7 by means of a DC potential having a positive terminal 16 and a negative terminal 17 can be used to generate a temperature differential by attracting heat carrying charge carriers from the upper surface volume 11 to the lower surface volume 12. This is accomplished by driving a (positively charged) current 18A emanating from the positive terminal 16 of the voltage bias 15 that is externally applied to a second conducting electrode 19 in electrical communication with the n-type semiconducting electronic material 9. The second conducting electrode is configured to maintain simultaneous thermal communication with the bottom surface volume 12. The applied current 18B stimulated in the second conducting electrode 19 draws negatively charged electrons 14 in the n-type electronic material 9, towards the lower surface volume 12. This movement of charge stimulates a current 18C in the first conducting electrode 10 in thermal communication with the upper surface volume 10 and the flow of positively charged holes 13 in the semiconductor element containing p-type electronic material 8 towards the lower surface volume 12. A current 18D is stimulated in a third conducting element 20 in thermal communication with the lower surface volume 12. The thermoelectric circuit is completed by sending a return current 18E to the negative terminal 17 of the externally applied voltage bias 15.
In the case of an externally applied voltage bias 15, higher charge carrier densities develop in the regions of the semiconductor elements 89 that are in immediate proximity to the lower surface volume 12 as electrically excited holes/electrons 13,14 drift in response to the applied electrical potential. As is the case with an ideal gas, the localized regions in which charge carriers electrically accumulate will have elevated temperatures in response to their higher particle/charge carrier densities. This action causes the upper surface volume 11 to cool as its heat is pumped by the thermoelectric circuit to a now hotter bottom surface volume 12. Since thermoelectric systems comprise thermodynamically reversible process, driving the current under a reverse bias would cause the upper surface volume 11 to heat, and the lower surface volume 12 to cool.
The figure of merit of a given Peltier module is characterized by a dimensionless parameter ZTave, where Tave is the average temperature of the Peltier module given by:Tave=(Thot+Tcold)/2  (1)where Thot representing the temperature of the hot electrode(s) and Tcold the temperature of the cold electrode.
Z is given by:
                    Z        =                              σ            ·                          S              2                                K                                    (        2        )            where σ and κ are the electrical and thermal conductivities, respectively, of the semiconducting elements and their cladding material (if any) in the module. The Seebeck coefficient, S, is a measurable parameter of the semiconducting elements in units of V/K that specifies how much voltage (thermopower) is generated in the semiconducting material per degree Kelvin of differential temperature applied across the material. Conversely, the Seebeck coefficient also specifies how much temperature differential will be induced in the material by an applied voltage. The Seebeck coefficient is a function of the p-type and n-type element pairs, and is not an intrinsic property of the material itself, but rather the configuration of the elemental pairs within the Peltier module.
The discrete assembly process is a principal drawback to modern TE systems. Discrete assemblies require semiconductor elements to be individually prepared (manufactured, finished, and in some instances tested) prior to qualifying for final assembly. For instance, n-type and p-type semiconductor elements all have to be sliced, diced and polished after being cut from the bulk ingot. Manufacturing methods that involve a large number of steps do not lend themselves to low cost production, nor are they suitable in very small scale microfluidic systems. Therefore, methods and means to simplify construction using techniques practiced in integrated circuit technology are desirable for developing lower cost TE systems and devices suitable for microfluidic applications.
State of the art Peltier modules having figures of merit (ZTave) approaching 1 are considered “good”. Peltier modules with figures of merit in the range of 2-3 have been reported in thin film embodiments microscopically patterned at nanometer scales (discussed below) and in stacked bulk structures 30 comprising a plurality of element arrays 31,32,33 as depicted in FIG. 1C. These systems are restricted in their commercial utility either through the higher cost of stacking lower efficiency modules and/or the limited applications realm of thin films devices where thermopower quotients are geometrically limited by the thickness of the thin films. Figures of merit in the range of 3-4 need to be achieved for thermoelectric heat pumping systems to have heating and cooling efficiencies that approach those of mechanical systems.
Another useful thermoelectric device architecture involving fluidic systems is depicted in FIG. 1D. In this configuration TE devices 35,36,37,38,39 are interposed between electrically conductive and thermally conductive means 40,41,42,43,44,45 that are in thermal communication with working fluid media through a series of heat exchangers or heat transfer devices. The TE elements 35,36,37,38,39 may either comprise an array of n-type and p-type semiconductor elements as depicted in FIG. 1A,1B, or may otherwise be bulk semiconductor material forming the TE system by alternating between n-type semiconductor in devices 35,37,39 and p-type semiconductor in devices 36,38. Additionally, the thermally conductive means 40,41,42,43,44,45 are segregated into “cold side” (shown with hatching) and “hot side” (shown with cross hatching) systems. Under this configuration, a cooling fluid that is sequentially fed through the heat exchangers or heat transfer devices communicating with thermally conductive means 41,43,45, respectively, gets progressively cooler through the thermoelectric action driven by the current by power supply 46. Similarly, a fluid to be heated gets progressively hotter as it is sequentially pumped through the heat exchangers or heat transfer devices communicating with thermally conductive means 44,42,40, respectively.
As inferred through equation (2), higher TE figures of merit can be achieved by maximizing the electrical conductivity, σ, and the Seebeck coefficient, S, of the semiconductor material, while minimizing the thermal conductivity of the materials inserted between the module's hot and cold electrodes. Seebeck coefficients approaching −287 μV/K have been reported in bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) thin films prepared by magnetron sputtering. These thin films were reported to have grain sizes ranging between 0.9 μm (900 nm) and 1.5 μm (1,500 nm).
TABLE 1Required VoltageVmax24.6 VCurrent DrawImax11.3 AHeat TransferQmax172 WDifferential Surface TemperatureΔTmax70° C.
Representative performance values for commercially available 40 mm×40 mm (2.6 inch2) Peltier modules having ZT≈1 are given in Table I. Despite the impressive heat-transfer quotients, the cost of these systems needs to be dramatically reduced before thermoelectric technology will gain widespread commercial use in heating/cooling and power generation applications. The leading cause for their high cost is the discrete assembly of the module components. These discrete assemblies include costs associated with semiconductor crystal growth, which can take weeks, ingot slicing, wafer dicing and element polishing, in addition to the discrete assembly process itself, which add cumulative labor and supply chain management costs to the module's construction.
Despite the above mentioned drawbacks (cost and lower efficiencies), current state-of-the-art Peltier modules have demonstrated commercial utility in niche applications including: portable heaters/coolers, temperature controllers that prevent overclocking in microprocessors and runaway in laser repeaters, systems that cool satellites and spacecraft that emerge from the Earth's shadow and have sides that are exposed to direct sunlight, the conversion of thermal energy generated by a radioactive pile to electricity on board deep space satellites, astronomical telescopes, dehumidifiers, and low profile temperature controllers that thermally cycle minute materials. It would therefore be desirable to enable the broader commercialization of thermoelectric systems by reducing overall TE system cost while boosting performance to levels competitive with mechanical systems.
2. Background on Higher Thermopower Materials
Cursory inspection of equation 2 shows that higher thermoelectric figures of merit can be achieved by maximizing electrical conductivity, σ, of the semiconductor element(s) while simultaneously minimizing thermal conductivity, κ, of all the materials sandwiched between the top 3 and bottom 4 surfaces of a thermoelectric module 1. The primary challenge to this phenomenon is that charge carriers (electrons and holes) that conduct electrical currents also convey thermal currents. Heat is mediated in the n-type and p-type semiconducting materials through the flow of charge carriers and lattice vibrations. Electrons and holes represent the indivisible quanta of electrical charge, whereas phonons represent the individual quanta of vibrational energy. Since both quantum mechanical systems carry heat, the thermal conductivity κ of materials is comprised of two fundamental components:κ=κelectron(hole)+κphonon.  (3)In an operational TE module, electron/hole charge carriers will drift under the influence of an applied electric field to produce the temperature differential ΔT. In turn, the temperature differential ΔT causes charge carriers and phonons to diffuse from the hotter surface to the colder one. Therefore, it is desirable to the development of higher performance thermoelectric modules to have low-cost manufacturing methods that enable integration of advanced semiconductor materials possessing intrinsic and extrinsic properties that maximize the current flow, while simultaneously minimizing the thermal flow.
In recent years, higher ZTave parameters 90 have been reported for bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) semiconductor and its alloys with selenium (Se) and antimony (Sb) as better controls for the synthesis of ultra-fine materials are developed and understood (see FIG. 2). These enhanced thermopower properties occur predominantly in thin film structures and are attributed to nanoscale defects and inclusions found in the semiconductor body.
These nanoscale irregularities either facilitate electron transport through the semiconductor in some way, or impede thermal conduction through the semiconductor element. Heterojunction defects can also occur in bulk alloys wherein a chemical non-uniformity in a highly localized region produces a semiconducting compound within micro-volume that is chemically distinct from the hulk material. A heterostructure is created when the band gap of the dissimilar alloy contained within the micro-volume forms a heterojunction interface with the enveloping bulk material by virtue of the different electronic band gaps of the two chemically distinct materials. If the micro-volume is physically small enough (10-100 nm) it can form a quantum dot within the bulk semiconductor. Thin film structures that form quantum dot superlattices (“QDSL”) 47 have demonstrated the potential for higher thermopower. QDSL embed a plurality of quantum dots 48 on the surface of a semiconducting thin film substrate 49. (See FIGS. 3A,3B). The quantum dots 48 are formed by first depositing a layer of a first type of semiconductor 50, usually a narrow band gap semiconductor, on the semiconducting thin film substrate 49. The thin film substrate may optionally include a buffer layer 51 to facilitate the epitaxial formation of succeeding layers deposited thereupon. Advanced photolithographic techniques or methods of tensile-strain heteroepitaxy are used to pattern the first type semiconductor 50 and are applied to reform the first type semiconductor 50 material into an array of desired geometric shapes 52. A second type semiconductor 53 (not shown in FIG. 3B), usually having a wider semiconductor band gap than the first type semiconductor 50 to create the electronic potential barrier, overlays the residual first type semiconductor material 50 and the array of geometric shapes 52 formed therefrom. The process is repeated to form a plurality of such layers that build the thermoelectric material to greater thickness.
While QDSL 47 structures have been useful in mapping a path towards higher thermopower materials, they have limited widespread commercial value due to their geometric limitations and have lower Seebeck coefficients than pure superlattice systems. Furthermore, measurements of QDSL 47 structures report thermopowers that are approximately an order of magnitude lower that those observed in conventional superlattice systems, which comprise alternating first-type and second-type semiconductor layers having thicknesses ranging from 10-100 nm thick. QDSL 47 structures formed by heteroepitaxy manufacturing methods require the second-type semiconductor 53 layer(s) to have a thickness 54 of at least 200 nm to replanarize the layer surface 54A so it is suitable for further heteroepitaxial processing of successive layers. As a result, the enhanced thermopower in QDSL 47 structures is achieved in the lateral plane where resonant charge transport is facilitated by quantum tunneling processes due to the close relative proximity (2-100 nm) of the desired geometric shapes 52 forming the quantum dots in x-y dimensions. The large distance (˜150 nm or more) QDSL structures separating quantum dots 48 in the z-dimension frustrates resonant charge transport in the vertical direction. Since, for reasons provided below, it would be advantageous to enhance thermopower by means of isotropic QDSL structures.
The physical mechanism(s) whereby quantum dots improve thermopower are still being defined and are most likely numerous and varied. It has been concluded that thermopower can be enhanced in bulk semiconductors by forming a dilute alloy with an electronic dopant, wherein the dopants to form a sub-band that modifies the semiconductor's normal charge carrier density of states ρ(E) profile 55 (thick dashed line), so as to create a distortion 56 in the charge carrier density of states ρ(E) profile 57 (thin solid line) as shown in FIG. 4. To be effective, the alloying component must induce a sub-band within the electronic structure of the undoped semiconductor that “resonates” with a major band of the undoped semiconductor. To enhance thermopower, the distortion 56 must lie within a small range ER 58 of the semiconductor's Fermi-level EF 59. Consequently, the dopant must induce sub-bands that resonate (align) with (energetically located in) the conduction band of an undiluted n-type semiconductor material, or induce sub-bands 60 that resonate (align) with the valence band of an undiluted p-type semiconductor material. The mechanism by which thermopower is enhanced in a suitably diluted semiconducting alloy is described through Mott expression, which defines the Seebeck coefficient, S, in terms of the diluted alloy's energy-dependent conductivity σ(E). The energy-dependent conductivity σ(E) is expressed as:σ(E)=n(E)·q·μ(E)  (4a)n(E)=ρ(E)·ƒ(E)  (4b)where:
n(E) is the charge carrier density
q is electric charge of an electron (hole)
μ(E) is the energy-dependent charge carrier mobility,
ρ(E) is the energy-dependent density of states
ƒ(E) is the Fermi function.
Using these descriptive parameters the Seebeck coefficient, S, can be expressed in terms of the logarithmic derivative of the energy-dependent conductivity σ(E), which correlates to:
                                                        S              =                            ⁢                                                                                                                  π                        2                                            ⁢                                              k                        B                        2                                            ⁢                      T                                                              3                      ⁢                      q                                                        ⁢                                      {                                                                  ⅆ                                                  [                                                      ln                            ⁡                                                          (                                                              σ                                ⁡                                                                  (                                  E                                  )                                                                                            )                                                                                ]                                                                                            ⅆ                        E                                                              }                                                  ⁢                                  ❘                                      E                    =                                          E                      r                                                                                                                                              =                            ⁢                                                                                                                  π                        2                                            ⁢                                              k                        B                        2                                            ⁢                      T                                                              3                      ⁢                      q                                                        ⁢                                      {                                                                                            1                          n                                                ⁢                                                                              ⅆ                                                          n                              ⁡                                                              (                                E                                )                                                                                                                                          ⅆ                            E                                                                                              +                                                                        1                          μ                                                ⁢                                                                              ⅆ                                                          μ                              ⁡                                                              (                                E                                )                                                                                                                                          ⅆ                            E                                                                                                                }                                                  ⁢                                  ❘                                      E                    =                                          E                      r                                                                      ⁢                                  (                                      5                    ⁢                    b                                    )                                                                                        (                  5          ⁢          a                )            Using the expression given in equation 4b, the two mechanisms through which the Seebeck coefficient, S, can be enhanced by means of materials design and engineering is by introducing a solid-state structure that sharply increases the energy-dependence of the mobility, μ(E), of the conducting charge carriers, or by sharply increasing the energy-dependence of the charge carrier density, n(E). A larger energy dependence in n(E) can be achieved (through equation 3b) by introducing sub-bands 60 that produce a strong distortion 56 in the carrier density of states ρ(E) at energy-levels that closely align with the materials Fermi energy, EF.
Not all semiconductor systems are amenable to forming diluted alloys that distort the carrier density of states with sub-bands that align with the Fermi-level. For instance, lead telluride (PbTe) semiconductor can be alloyed with gallium (Ga) to form a diluted p-type Ga—PbTe alloy, but it is not clear where the energy levels of the gallium (Ga) sub-bands are located. Diluting PbTe with indium (In) induces energy sub-bands that fall within the energy gap at room temperature, making In—PbTe alloys unsuitable for many applications. Diluting PbTe with thallium (Tl) has produced sub-bands that are favorably located for p-type Tl—PbTe diluted alloys, validating the physics articulated in equations 4b & 5b, but it has not been possible to fabricate n-type bulk materials with favorable distortions in their density of states that are needed to complete the thermoelectric circuit. Therefore, it would be desirable to integrate advanced n-type and p-type semiconductor materials that have enhanced thermopower by virtue of distortions to the bulk semiconductor material's normal charge carrier energy density of states.
Thermoelectric systems are often limited to operational ranges that are determined by intrinsic characteristics of bulk semiconductor materials, such as the semiconductor band gap and its density of states. FIG. 5A illustrates the ZT figures of merit as functions of temperature for various n-type semiconductor compositional systems, including: bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) 64, optimized bulk lead telluride (PbTe) 65, non-optimized bulk telluride (PbTe) 66, cobalt antimonide (CoSb3) 67, silicon germanium (SiGe) 68, lanthanum telluride (La3Te4) 69. Similarly, FIG. 5B illustrates the ZT figures of merit as functions of temperature for various p-type semiconductor compositional systems, including: antimony telluride (Sb2Te3) 70, lead telluride (PbTe) 71, optimized lead tellurium-selenide (PbTeSe) 72, germanium-telluride alloyed with silver-antimony telluride (GeTe)0.85(AgSbTe2)0.15 which is known in the art as TAGS 73, modified skutterudite (CeFe4Sb12) 74, non-optimized lead telluride (PbTe) 75, ytterbium manganese antimonide (Yb14MnSb11) 76, silicon-germanium (SiGe) 77.
In addition to improving the Seebeck coefficient, S, through the introduction of suitable electronic sub-bands in the semiconductor material, thermoelectric figures of merit (ZT) can be improved by increasing the semiconductors' electrical conductivity, σ. Bulk semiconductor systems are generally constrained in this regard as the factors that enhance Seebeck coefficients, S, deteriorate electrical conductivity, σ. FIG. 6 illustrates how a semiconductor's Seebeck coefficient 80 and electrical conductivity 81 generally vary in relationship to the semiconductor's free carrier concentration. Standard semi-conductive properties 82 are commonly observed in materials that have carrier concentration falling in the range of 1017 and 1019 carriers/cm3, whereas metallic conduction 83 is prominent in materials endowed with carrier concentrations greater than 1021 carriers/cm3. Heavily-doped semiconductors 84 fall in the range of 1019 and 1021 carriers/cm3. Seebeck coefficients 80 are maximal at lower carrier concentrations, whereas electrical conductivity 81 increases with higher carrier concentrations. As a result of these tradeoffs, thermopower factors 85 are generally maximized in conventional bulk semiconductors doped to levels in the vicinity of 1020 carriers/cm3.
3. Background on Electrical Aircraft De-Icing Systems
Aircraft de-icing systems is a particular application in which thermoelectric de-icing systems could have significant value, but to date a means to meet the necessary requirements for efficiency, mechanical flexibility, and temperature differential have not been developed. It has been a long sought goal to prevent or reverse atmospheric ice formation on an aerodynamic surface of an aircraft, such as the wings, ailerons, rudder, stabilizers, propellers, rotors, fuselage and the like. Ice accumulation on an aerodynamic surface during flight or while on the ground can alter air foil configuration or add excessive weight that leads to dangerous flying conditions, particularly for general aviation aircraft. In winter conditions, de-icing chemical sprays are required prior to take-off on all commercial aircraft to remove any ice formations on the wings and fuselage. Current de-icing methods pose an environmental hazard as chemical sprays leach into ground water systems. Electrical de-icing systems are deployed on the larger air frames, but their efficiency not sufficient to eliminate chemical de-icing prior to take-off, so they only assist in the de-icing process.
Conventional approaches have been to apply resistive (Joule) heating systems to the surfaces or directly beneath surfaces, such as that described in Rutherford et al. '986, and the references contained therein, only supply a few Watts-inch−2. As noted in Table I, the heat output of 68 W-inch−2 available in contemporary thermoelectric systems is vastly superior to standard Joule heating de-icing systems. However, discretely assembled Peltier modules are wholly unsuited for application as aircraft de-icing systems due to both the fragility of the mechanical assembly and their high cost, among numerous other reasons. Therefore, it is desirable to produce thermoelectric systems that meet the mechanical, performance, and cost requirements that enable aerospace de-icing systems.
For the purposes of the de-icing embodiment articulated below, the cold electrode 11 serves the purpose of being a thermal reservoir, which could be the body off the aircraft, such as the fuselage, or an interior or exterior surface of an aerodynamic component of the vehicle or flight system. The heated surface volume 12 them forms the outer skin of the aircraft. While it is a particular aspect of the present invention to produce Peltier modules satisfying the robust conditions required to be useful as aerospace de-icing skins, it is a primary aspect of the invention to produce higher efficiency Peltier modules at far lower cost than currently available to allow thermoelectric technology solutions to be generally available for broad commercial uses that go well beyond aircraft de-icing applications. There are numerous instances on board aircraft where it is desirable to transfer excess heat from one location to another. This is usually done by piping heated air through relatively heavy pneumatic systems. Thermoelectric skins, such as those proposed herein, would allow a lighter weight system (the skins and wire) to convert the excess heat into an electrical current that could be used to power a thermoelectric heat pumping system or a resistive heater at the cold area of the flight system. It is therefore an additional aspect of this invention to apply improved thermoelectric skins to hot surfaces, such as those found on combustion engines or cappuccino machines, as thermopower generators to further improve power management on a mobile or stationary platform.
4. Definition of Terms
The term “aerodynamic surface” is herein defined as a surface that directs the flow of a fluid medium, notably air, so as to create aerodynamic forces that contribute to lift or controlled motion of a vehicle traveling through the medium.
The term “airflow surface” is herein understood to mean any surface over which heated or cooled gases flow over and create a temperature differential with that surface.
The term “alkali metal” is herein understood to refer to its conventional definition meaning the group of metallic elements in column IA of the periodic table, consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium.
The term “alkaline earth metal” is herein understood to refer to its conventional definition meaning the group of metallic elements found in column IIA of the periodic table, consisting of magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium.
The term “amorphous material” is herein understood to mean a material that does not comprise a periodic lattice of atomic elements, or lacks mid-range (over distances of 10's of nanometers) to long-range crystalline order (over distances of 100's of nanometers).
The term “anti-ice” is herein understood to mean the prevention of ice formations on the leading edge of an aerodynamic surface.
The terms “chemical complexity”, “compositional complexity”, “chemically complex”, or “compositionally complex” are herein understood to refer to a material, such as a metal or superalloy, compound semiconductor, or ceramic that consists of three (3) or more elements from the periodic table.
The term “de-ice” is herein understood to mean the removal of ice that has already formed on any aerodynamic surface or other aircraft surface.
The term “evaporative mode” is herein understood to mean an aircraft de-icing system that supplies sufficient heat so as to cause the ice either not to accrete or to evaporate from the aerodynamic surface.
The term “flight system” is herein understood to mean any manned or unmanned vehicle that is capable of powered or non-powered flight through the earth's atmosphere, low-earth orbit or in outer space.
The term “integrated circuit” is herein understood to mean a semiconductor chip into which a large, very large, or ultra-large number of transistor elements have been embedded.
The term “LCD” is herein understood to mean a method that uses liquid precursor solutions to fabricate materials of arbitrary compositional or Chemical complexity as an amorphous laminate or free-standing body or as a crystalline laminate or free-standing body that has atomic-scale chemical uniformity and a microstructure that is controllable down to nanoscale dimensions.
The term “liquid precursor solution” is herein understood to mean a solution of hydrocarbon molecules that also contains soluble metalorganic compounds that may or may not be organic acid salts of the hydrocarbon molecules into which they are dissolved.
The term “MAX phase material” is herein understood to define a chemically complex intermetallic ceramic material having the general chemical formula M(n+1)AXn, wherein M is first row transition-metal element, A is an “A-group” element found in columns III-VI of the periodic table, and X is either carbon (C) or nitrogen (N).
The term “mean free path” is herein understood to refer to its traditional definition, which describes the physical length a quantum particle (in this instance, an electron, a hole, or a phonon) travels within a solid before it is scattered off of its original path through its electromagnetic, electromechanical, or mechanical interaction with an object found within the solid known to function as a scattering center.
The term “microstructure” is herein understood to define the elemental composition and physical size of crystalline gains forming a material substance.
The term “mismatched materials” is herein understood to define two materials that have dissimilar crystalline lattice structure, or lattice constants that differ by 5% or more, and/or thermal coefficients of expansion that differ by 10% or more.
The term “n-type electronic material” is herein understood to refer to the conventional definition as a material that conducts Charge and heat through an unpaired electron that is free to move throughout the solid through heat diffusion or electrical drift by having been energetically promoted to an electronic conduction band.
The term “nanoscale” is herein understood to define physical dimensions measured in lengths ranging from 1 nanometer (nm) to 100's of nanometers (nm).
The term “p-type electronic material” is herein understood to refer to the conventional definition as a material that conducts charge and heat through an electron vacancy or hole in the valence band of a solid that is free to move as a positive charge in response to heat diffusion or electrical drift.
The term “pnictogen” is herein understood to refer to the Group V elements of the periodic table consisting of: nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi).
The term “running wet” is herein understood to mean a level of de-icing that is sufficient to melt the ice, causing water droplets to run over the aerodynamic surface.
The term “standard operating temperatures” is herein understood to mean the range of temperatures between −40° C. and +125° C.
The term “surface volume” is herein understood to mean a layer of thermally conducting material that essentially encompasses the active thermal transport major surfaces of a thermoelectric circuit.
The term “thermoelectric effect” is herein understood to refer to its conventional definition as the physical phenomenon wherein a temperature differential applied across a material induces a voltage differential within that material, and/or an applied voltage differential across the material induces a temperature differential within that material.
The term “thermoelectric material” is herein understood to refer to its conventional definition as a solid material that exhibits the “thermoelectric effect”.
The terms “tight tolerance” or “critical tolerance” are herein understood to mean a performance value, such as a capacitance, inductance, or resistance that varies less than ±1% over standard operating temperatures.
The term “II-VI compound semiconductor” is herein understood to refer to its conventional meaning describing a compound semiconductor comprising at least one element from column IIB of the periodic table consisting of: zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), or mercury (Hg); and, at least one element from column VI of the periodic table consisting of: oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), or tellurium (Te).
The term “III-V compound semiconductor” is herein understood to refer to its conventional meaning describing a compound semiconductor comprising at least one semi-metallic element from column III of the periodic table consisting of: boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), and indium (In); and, at least one gaseous or semi-metallic element from the column V of the periodic table consisting of: nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), or bismuth (Bi).
The term “IV-IV compound semiconductor” is herein understood to refer to its conventional meaning describing a compound semiconductor comprising a plurality of elements from column IV of the periodic table consisting of: carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), or lead (Pb).
The term “IV-VI compound semiconductor” is herein understood to refer to its conventional meaning describing a compound semiconductor comprising at least one element from column IV of the periodic table consisting of: carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), or lead (Pb); and, at least one element from column VI of the periodic table consisting of: sulfur (S), selenium (Se), or tellurium (Te).